The opponents of the Hussites learned their way of fighting in the war itself. According to Max Jähns, they were forced to: anyone who wanted to set artillery of their own against artillery needed wagons, and anyone who wanted to take an enemy wagon fort had to leave the brunt of the fighting to the infantry. In the German lands the wagon fort thus became so closely bound up with the army that the word Wagenburg was often used for the army as such. The wagon fort ordinances of the period (Wagenburgordnungen) are therefore mostly army ordinances (Heerordnungen) as well. According to Toman, references to wagons armed in the Hussite manner appear in the resolutions of the estates of the neighbouring lands from the defeat at Ústí nad Labem (Aussig) in 1426 onwards. At first, however, they are very brief and merely list what is to be taken into the field with the wagons.
The wagon fort was not the only subject, however. According to Toman, three general military ordinances for the planned campaigns into Bohemia emerged from the deliberations of the imperial diets during the Hussite wars. They deal with the preparation of the campaign, discipline in the army and the allocation of artillery. The electors' proposals of 1426 are in his view merely a poor attempt, the Frankfurt resolution of 1427 already forms a complete ordinance of 48 articles, and the third ordinance was issued by the Nuremberg diet in 1431.
Maximilian von Wulf observes that, as far as the wagon fort is concerned, the ordinances of 1428–1450 are limited to the equipment of the wagons. In his view, the Nuremberg resolution of 1428 contains the very earliest provisions on the war wagons of the imperial levies. Only from a later period have more detailed ordinances survived that also describe the march and encampment of the wagon fort. According to Wulf, the most vivid picture of a wagon fort on the march and in camp is given by the ordinances of Margrave Albrecht Achilles.
As a source for Hussite warfare, both authors treat the later ordinances with reservation. Toman regards the ordinances from the first half of the century as direct sources. As for the later ones, he points out that they reflect the changes of the last quarter of the century – improved artillery and Swiss and Netherlandish models in the use of infantry. Even so, he finds much of value in them that rests on old traditions, above all on manoeuvring with wagons and on technical aids, about which the older sources are silent. Wulf goes even further: in his view the later ordinances lack any necessary connection with the Hussite model. They can therefore serve only to confirm and explain the scanty direct reports on Hussite warfare, not as proof.
The agreement against the Hussites was concluded by the Silesian princes together with the lands and towns of Breslau and Schweidnitz-Jauer. It regulates the garrisoning of the border castles with cavalry, joint action in the event of an invasion of Silesia, the equipment of the wagons and the allocation of guns, and finally lists what is to be taken along on the campaign. The document bears no year; it is dated only “on the Thursday of the Ember Days before Michaelmas”. Palacký printed it after Grünhagen's edition under 18 September 1421. Grünhagen connects it with the assembly of princes at Grottkau on that day and stresses its markedly defensive character. Toman, on the other hand, holds that the document belongs to a later period, perhaps to 1427. He regards it rather as a more detailed implementation of the league of the same principalities of 14 February 1427, and considers such a large number of guns altogether improbable for 1421.
Translation notes: I interpret the obscure words following Grünhagen's paraphrase of the document in modern German. According to him, the “landzocht” chain connected the two halves of the wagon, “czoë” are pitchforks and “pisschullen” are hand firearms. He explains “tarrasssteinbüchsen” as guns that are rested on something when fired, as opposed to hand firearms; I translate them as tarasnice (light pieces on a stand). I also follow Grünhagen in identifying the princes: Duke Kaske is Casimir of Auschwitz (Oświęcim), Bernhard is Bernhard of Falkenberg and Przemek is Přemek of Troppau (Opava). I leave the words “kriptücher”, “lythische schilde”, “poffeysen” and “fusseysen” untranslated. Grünhagen merely renders them in modern German (Halstragseln, lüttische Schilde (?), Puffeisen, Fußeisen) and their meaning is uncertain.
Einigung mann vnd stete vnd der fürsten in der Slesia.
Off den tag zue Grottkaw haben sich die fürsten und lande u. stete Breslaw Swednitz u. Jawer sich eyntrechtiglich geeynet u. beslossen wider die kätzer in Behem, also hienoch stehet geschreben:
Zum irsten die festen an den grentzen vff eine landwer zu besetzen, also: Item hertzog Johannes von Monsterberg u. land u. stete Breslaw, Swidnitz und Jawer sullen 230 pferde legen uff das Smedewerg (Schmiedeberg), off den Schetzler (Schatzler), vf Swartzenwalde (Schwarzwaldau) u. vf Conradswalde (bei Grüssau). Item der bischof 70 pferde. Hertz. Ruprecht von Löbin vnd Ludwig sein bruder 35 pferdt, h. Ludwig vom Brige 60 pferdt und h. Conrad Canthner 60 pferdt sullen sie kein Brawnaw legen. Item so sullen die von Ratibor Jegerdorff selbir mit 50 pferden besetzen. Item h. Bolcke von Teschen 30 pf. und der junge h. Bolco 25 pf. in die Ostra legen. H. Bernhard mit 30 pf., h. Kaske mit 20 pf., und der weisse h. Conrad mit 20 pf. sollen h. Przemken helfen, wo her der helfe am notlichsten dann wird bedürfen, uff 1/4 jar. Item zu welchen vnder den besatzten slossen die ketzer zuziehen würden, den sullen die andern von den besatzten slossen zur hulffe kommen. Item ap sie swach weren vnd den fürsten hinder sich schreiben wörden, so hat iglich furste vff sein mit gantzer macht, die her vor jugent vnd von alder vffbrengen mag, ein feld wieder die ketzer zu machen, dass sullen auch thun mann vnd stete. Item dozu sol iglich furste in das schicken, das is an im nicht dorffe gebrechen, nach des bundes lawt und auch land vnd stete.
Item ap es sich geburte, welch furste odir land adir stad seine macht dem andern entzihn vnd den bund brechen welde, den wellen die andern vorclagen vor dem bobiste, vor dem cardinal vnd vor dem römischen konige, vnd werde zurathe, wie sie es an jm gehaben konnen, en zu holffen vnd den bunden in seinen würden zu halden.
Item ap die kätzer in die Slesie zien werden, so sal iglich furste land vnd stete, die im lande sein, mit gantzer macht vff sein, sam jederman gesessin ist, vnd en enkegen zien, ein feld zu machen, beide aus landen vnd steten etc. Item iglich furste sal bestellen in seinen landen vnd steten, das 10 gebawer einen waijn haben mit irer were vnd speise vff drei monden. Nemlich itzlich waijn sol haben eine kethe, die man nennt eine landzocht, zwey brethe, zwey grabescheit, eine schauffel, zwu czoë, eine haue adir zwu. Vnd itzlicher sal seine beste were mit jm nemen, also spisse, armbroste vnd suste so er beste mag. Das sullen auch tun die obgenante lande vnd stete. Item itzlicher furste sal seine stete heissen mete nemen weren so sie beste mögen vnd ouch die lannt. Item itzlich furste sal mit jm nemen bochsen, nachdeme also es im ist angeslagen. Item die Sweidnitzer land vnd stete sullen mit jn nemen eine grosse bochse, 15 tarrasssteinbüchsen vnd 100 pisschullen. Item die andern fursten vnd land vnd stete werden och mete nemen iglicher nach seinem anslage. Summa summarum der bochsen, 20 grosse bochsen, domete man mawren fellen mag, 300 tarrasssteinbüchsen, 2000 pisschullen.
Ussrichtung vnd gerethe in die herfart zu habin: capelan mit eynem ornat, messebuch, lichte, kelich, wein, ampullen alterstein. Gelt, wein, byr, fleisch, speck, seitenfleisch, schmaltz, fysche, putter, behmische kese, cleine kese, saltz, tyschlag, hant tücher, kessel, dreifuss, würze, vnsletlichte, wichsinne stöckel, spisse, exsse, grabescheit, haulkin, muldin, schauffeln, schlegel, kriptücher, pfele, strenge, futterstricke, getzelt mit stangen vnd sinem gerethe, futtersecke, hobir vnd ein moss dorzu, hulzyne kannen, kopperinne tringgefese, lythische schilde, pfannen, tringtoppen, roste, brantreithe, schutzemeister, balbirer, czymmerleuthe, bochsenmeister, bochsen, pulver, poffeysen, kawlin, fusseysen, eiserne flegel, erbis, zugemüse.
Am dornstage in der quatertempora vor Michaelis.
Agreement of the vassals and towns and of the princes in Silesia.
At the assembly at Grottkau the princes and the lands and towns of Breslau, Schweidnitz and Jauer united in concord and resolved against the heretics in Bohemia, as is written hereafter:
First, to garrison the strongholds on the borders for the defence of the land, as follows: Duke John of Münsterberg and the lands and towns of Breslau, Schweidnitz and Jauer shall station 230 horse at Schmiedeberg (Kowary), at Schatzlar (Žacléř), at Schwarzwaldau (Czarny Bór) and at Konradswaldau near Grüssau. Item the bishop 70 horse. Duke Rupert of Lüben and Louis his brother 35 horse, Duke Louis of Brieg 60 horse and Duke Conrad the Kantner 60 horse shall station them at Braunau (Broumov). Item those of Ratibor shall garrison Jägerndorf (Krnov) themselves with 50 horse. Item Duke Bolko of Teschen 30 horse and the young Duke Bolko 25 horse shall station them at Ostrau (Ostrava). Duke Bernhard with 30 horse, Duke Kaske with 20 horse and the white Duke Conrad with 20 horse shall help Duke Przemek wherever he shall most need help, for a quarter of a year. Item whichever of the garrisoned castles the heretics move against, the others from the garrisoned castles shall come to its aid. Item if they were weak and wrote to the princes for help, every prince shall rise with all the might he can raise from young and old and take the field against the heretics; the vassals and towns shall do the same. Item every prince shall contribute to this so that nothing is lacking on his part, according to the terms of the league, and the lands and towns as well.
Item should it happen that any prince or land or town wished to withhold its might from the others and break the league, the others will accuse him before the pope, before the cardinal and before the King of the Romans, and will take counsel how they might bring him to help them and to keep the league in force.
Item if the heretics move into Silesia, every prince, land and town that is in the country shall rise with all its might, according to how each is settled, march against them and take the field, both from the lands and from the towns, etc. Item every prince shall arrange in his lands and towns that every 10 peasants have one wagon with their weapons and food for three months. Namely, each wagon shall have a chain called a landzocht, two boards, two spades, one shovel, two pitchforks, one hoe or two. And each man shall take his best weapon with him, that is spears, crossbows and otherwise whatever he best can. The aforesaid lands and towns shall do the same. Item every prince shall order his towns to take weapons as best they can, and the countryside too. Item every prince shall take guns with him according to his allotment. Item the land and towns of Schweidnitz shall take with them one great gun, 15 tarasnice and 100 pisschullen. Item the other princes and lands and towns will also take theirs, each according to his allotment. Sum total of guns: 20 great guns with which walls can be brought down, 300 tarasnice, 2000 pisschullen.
Equipment and gear to be had on the campaign: a chaplain with a vestment, missal, candles, chalice, wine, cruets, altar stone. Money, wine, beer, meat, bacon, flitches, lard, fish, butter, Bohemian cheeses, small cheeses, salt, tablecloths, towels, kettles, trivets, spices, tallow candles, wax tapers, spears, axes, spades, hooks, troughs, shovels, mallets, kriptücher, stakes, traces, fodder ropes, a tent with poles and its fittings, fodder sacks, oats and a measure for them, wooden jugs, copper drinking vessels, lythische schilde, pans, drinking pots, gridirons, firedogs, masters of the marksmen, barbers, carpenters, gunners, guns, powder, poffeysen, balls, fusseysen, iron flails, peas, vegetables.
On the Thursday of the Ember Days before Michaelmas.
The proposals were drawn up by the electors at their meeting in Nuremberg between 7 and 10 June 1426. They deal with how to prepare and conduct the campaign against the Hussites, how to muster the people and who is to contribute to the campaign, as well as with the safety of the participants and compensation for their losses. Rules of military discipline appear only in Article 17, and even there, according to Toman, only in abridged form without details. Toman took the article from the Deutsche Reichstagsakten and divided it into paragraphs a–g himself. The text survives only in an 18th-century paper copy in the Breslau State Archive, which does not name its exemplar, and the editor corrected numerous misreadings in it. An older calendar of Upper Lusatian charters and Grünhagen both placed it in 1422. Toman's transcription differs from the edition mainly in spelling. The only difference in substance is in paragraph b), where Toman reads “fährde” and the edition “vehede”, that is, a feud. At this point the translation follows the edition. According to the editor, the ban on taking common women along with the army also appears in the Frankfurt ordinance of 1427.
Translation notes: I translate the words “wenn die hussen zusammenkommen werden” literally. They could, however, also be understood more loosely as the mustering of the armies against the Hussites.
The editor explains the phrase “umme niemands willen vorsehen” as to pardon or forgive; hence “not be remitted for anyone's sake”.
The resolution was adopted by the imperial estates at the diet in Frankfurt shortly before 4 May 1427. It prepared a campaign that was to invade Bohemia from four sides in the summer of the same year – from Nuremberg, Saxony, Silesia and Austria. Toman counts it among the three military ordinances that emerged from the deliberations of the imperial diets during the Hussite Wars, and calls it at the same time an artillery allocation. Unlike the electors' proposals of 1426, which he calls a poor attempt, it forms in his view a complete whole. In August 1427 the imperial army then advanced to Stříbro and Tachov, where most of it took flight without engaging the enemy.
Palacký published the text from the copy of Andreas of Regensburg. The Deutsche Reichstagsakten print it from the Strasbourg copy and record the variants of nine further copies and of Windecke's work on Emperor Sigismund. Although Toman writes that he prints the ordinance after the DRA, his text in fact corresponds to Palacký's edition with modernised spelling. He gives additions and variant readings from the DRA in square brackets. The copies differ substantially in several points. As the place of assembly, the main text of the DRA names Nuremberg, while the copy of Andreas of Regensburg and most of the others name Eger (Cheb). Of article 2 on the captains, Andreas's copy has only the first words in their place and appends the full text at the end. According to the Magdeburg copy, this article was inserted into the ordinance later. Articles 26 and 41 are missing from the main text of the DRA; on the other hand, the article on Passau, which is absent from Andreas's copy, is not found in Toman either. Some numbers of weapons also differ. According to the main text of the DRA, for example, the archbishop of Mainz is to bring four chamber guns and 22 hand guns instead of six and thirty.
Translation notes: Square brackets in the translation correspond to Toman's brackets in the original. The reading “Risenberg” in article 1, which Toman gives in brackets, I have not found in the DRA; the main text there has Nuremberg, and one of the copies adds Freiberg in Meissen.
In article 16 Toman has “aust ziehen”, the DRA at this point “sunst ziehen”. I translate after the DRA as “otherwise to march”.
“Toressen [tarassen]” in article 17 I translate as “tarras”, i.e. portable barricades. As the word stands among guns, arrows and ladders, tarras guns may also be meant.
According to a note in the DRA, “fromm” in article 20 means “orthodox”.
The word “herre” in article 21 I translate from the context and after the DRA reading (“here”) as “armies”.
According to a note in the DRA, a “renner” in article 22 is a mounted servant or groom, or a mounted messenger.
The meaning of “verdingen” in article 30 is uncertain; I translate it as “to take under contracted protection”.
“Niederlande” in article 40 is most likely Lower Bavaria, but this is not certain.
Weapons: I translate “tarasbuchsen” as tarras guns, “kammerbuchsen” as chamber guns, “hantbuchsen” as hand guns and “steinbüchsen” as stone guns, i.e. guns firing stone balls.
Translated by PhDr. Zdeňka Kopková.
The text is the last, seventh article of the resolutions of the assembly in Nuremberg. The preceding articles concern the convening of a further assembly and the share of the common people to be called up: a quarter, or half in an emergency. The document itself is undated. The date of around 23 April 1428 was only assigned to it by the editor of the Deutsche Reichstagsakten; earlier editors placed it in 1422 without any basis. The campaign never took place, so according to Toman the resolution remained only on paper.
According to Toman, King Sigismund agreed on an order for the formation of wagons with the Silesian princes and had it sent, in a German translation, to the princes and cities of the Empire. It has survived as an enclosure to a letter of 23 May 1429 in which Ulm informed Nördlingen about the meeting of the cities with the king's councillors held at Ehingen on 8 May, where the cities received the order. In the letter from Ulm the order is called “anschlag und ordnung der wagenburgen, als die denne unser herre der küng und och die herren uß der Schlesien hand”. The order itself is undated, so the edition of the Deutsche Reichstagsakten only places it before 23 May 1429. According to the same edition, the envoys of Wrocław (Breslau) had already written to their city from Pressburg on 18 April about the division of the troops into tens, hundreds and thousands (art. 12).
Toman regards this order as the most convincing proof that the German wagon orders are based on Czech sources, because it contains words that the German scribes did not understand. He explains “fassonswise” as the Czech “ve způsobu fasuňku” (in the manner of a fasuněk), “gethariast” as the Czech zatarasený (barricaded) and the unintelligible “sels” as a scribal error for “felde”, i.e. “from the field”, meaning on the outer side of the wagon fort.
Toman printed the order with normalised spelling and numbered the articles himself. In square brackets he added the variants and additions of a second copy preserved by Windecke. The edition of the Deutsche Reichstagsakten is based on the copy in the Nördlingen records of the Swabian League of Cities. Compared with it, Toman has articles 14 and 15 in reverse order, and in article 17 he reads “dem volke” instead of “dem folge”.
Translation notes: According to Toman, each wagon has 18 men in total: six crossbowmen, two handgunners, four men with hooked spears (“haken”), four flailmen and two drivers; Windecke's reading of 48 does not match this. The edition of the Deutsche Reichstagsakten explains “kilhoven” as an iron, wedge-shaped pointed hoe for hacking loose crumbly rock, translated here as “pickaxe”. It explains “in fassonswise” as a wagon onto which much can be loaded, “gethariast” as “barricaded”, and unlike Toman it considers the meaning “rope” or “strap” for “sels”. According to the edition, “howfnicze” is the Czech houfnice (howitzer), and “huldung” (in the edition “huldnung”) probably means the relationship of a dependant or a servant. Uncertain passages: “hacken” may mean axes as well as hoes; Windecke's “eine messung wit” in article 4 is left untranslated; in article 6 the word “wagons” is an interpretation; the meaning of article 13 and of the end of article 12 (“uf den andern sehe”) is uncertain. The word “(klötz)” in article 1 does not appear in the edition of the Deutsche Reichstagsakten.
These are two documents from the Nuremberg archive, a draft and a fair copy of a proposal on how to set up a wagon fort for a planned campaign into Bohemia. Both are written in the same hand, and in the 17th century they were given the heading “Alte fragmenta historica von denen geschichten Königs Wenzeslai in Böhmen, wobei eine beschreibung einer vollkommenen selbiger zeit gebrauchten wagenburg mit ihrer zugehörung”. The draft (a) is richer in content but terse, and in places contains only keywords that the fair copy (b) elaborates, while omitting many of them. The notes that both Toman and Würdinger print after the individual articles of the draft are set in italics here. According to Würdinger, they were written by the same hand as the proposal itself.
Toman believes the proposal refers to the campaign to Domažlice (Taus) in 1431 and dates it most probably to 1430, where Würdinger had already placed it, or to the first half of 1431. According to Wulf, Würdinger gave no reason for his dating. In Toman's view, the author was a man experienced in battle who had perhaps become acquainted with wagon formations on an earlier campaign into Bohemia and then adapted his proposal to conditions in Germany. Toman considers the text very important: the author does not confine himself to describing and equipping the wagons, but was the first to grasp the organic whole of Žižka's wagon formations and the division of wagons and men, and he sets out the number and placement of the guns relatively correctly.
Toman printed both documents with modernised spelling and numbered the articles himself. Würdinger's complete edition of 1872 retains the spelling of the original and differs from Toman's text in several places. In the note to the third article of the draft, Toman prints “Pert beware”, whereas the edition has “Pest bewarn”. The word that Toman renders as “wahrhaftig” (a/7, b/1) reads “werhafftig” in the edition, i.e. armed. Instead of Toman's “vorstehnden prediger” (a/11), the edition has “verstaden prediger”. In his earlier, merely paraphrased version, Würdinger speaks of men “wehrhaftig auf die Wagenpferde”, able and armed to ride the wagon horses, and of a “verständigen Prediger”. Conversely, “zu eim schutze” (a/5, b/3) and “antwerk” (a/14) are Toman's emendations; the edition has “schusse” and “hantwerk”.
Translation notes: I translate the divisions of the wagon fort as follows: “glied” section (5 wagons), “bund” company (25 wagons), “schickung” or “geschick” formation (100 wagons), “zeile” row.
The notation iijm means two and a half thousand; the fair copy (b/6) speaks of “dritthalb tausend volkes”.
The meaning of several notes in the draft and of some names of tools is uncertain. Such passages are marked with a question mark in the translation; Toman had already marked the word “Hogcken” with a question mark. For “Pest bewarn”, “werhafftig” and “verstaden”, the translation follows the reading of the edition.
Both texts came out of the negotiations of the Imperial Diet in Nuremberg in February and March 1431, which was preparing a great expedition into Bohemia. The order on how the army is to conduct itself (part a) is dated by the edition of the Deutsche Reichstagsakten to 9 or 10 March 1431. The schedule of guns and arrows to be supplied by the individual princes and cities (part b) is printed there as a separate document and placed between 19 February and 13–14 March 1431. According to the order, seven armies were to set out, each with its own wagon fort. In the summer of 1431 the German army did advance on Domažlice, in three armies with as many wagon forts. Toman believed that this order, like the German orders of 1426 and 1427 and Hodětín's order, drew on Czech military orders that have not survived, rather than directly on Žižka's order. Max Jähns saw in the provision that the princes are to keep assessors and an executor of punishments with their armies (art. 24) the first step towards a code of military justice.
Toman took the text from Palacký's edition, based on a manuscript in the Prague Chapter Archive, and added articles and readings from the Deutsche Reichstagsakten in square brackets. The round brackets contain his explanations and, in part b), also words and an article that are missing from that edition. The Deutsche Reichstagsakten are based on other copies and differ even in places that Toman did not mark. In article 4 they also name the dukes of Bavaria and the count of Württemberg, in article 5 the dukes of Brunswick (Toman has a duchess), the princes by the sea and the young margrave of Brandenburg, and in article 7 the Grand Master of Prussia instead of the German Master. In the schedule they additionally list the town of Windsheim and give different numbers of arrows for several cities, for example 6,000 for Ulm and 3,000 for Mainz, Speyer and Heilbronn. In the last article they read “nút angeslagen”, i.e. the princes and cities that are not listed in the schedule, whereas Toman reads “mit angeslagen”. In this article the translation follows the edition.
Translation notes: I translate “buchse” generally as gun, “steinbuchse” as stone gun (firing stone balls), “kammerbuchse” as chamber gun and “tarrasbuchse” as tarras gun. The size of the ball is given by comparison: as big as a head (“als ein haupt”) or as a skittle ball (“bosskaule”, “bosskugel”). The archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, Trier and Magdeburg are called merely bishops in the text, and I keep this in the translation.
“Rennbanner” (art. 18) is the banner of the vanguard, which according to Jähns opened the march. “Stroffer” (art. 24) is the executor of punishments; Jähns identifies him with the provost. For the word “burnen” (art. 20) the editor of the Deutsche Reichstagsakten hesitates between branding and burning at the stake. “Für pfil” (art. 36) are fire arrows according to the edition (fúrpfil). The text does not say how many of them are to go with every thousand ordinary arrows.
Das ist die begreifunge, wie man sich in den heeren halden sall, als hernoch stehet geschrieben.
Das ist der anschlag der büchsen und des gezeuges, das man haben sall.
This is the provision on how one is to conduct oneself in the armies, as written below.
This is the schedule of guns and equipment that are to be had.
The order records what Duke Albrecht of Austria, Margrave of Moravia, agreed with the estates of his land against the Hussites. It has survived in a contemporary copy in the archive of Riedeck Castle and was published by Franz Kurz in 1825. The document gives only the day, the Saturday before the feast of Saints Philip and James, but not the year. Kurz dated it to 1426; Toman considers his reasons very weak and places the order in 1431. Among other things, Kurz relied on the fact that Leopold Krajíř, named here as supreme captain in case illness prevented the Count of Schaumberg, actually commanded the Austrian army against the Hussites in a battle at the beginning of 1427. Toman, by contrast, points out that under the Nuremberg resolutions of March 1431 the imperial armies were to assemble at the end of June near the Bohemian border and the Austrian expedition at Laa in the same days, that Duke Albrecht held a diet in Vienna in April 1431, and that according to his letter of 24 May 1431 every tenth man was to join that year's campaign. He regards as the weightiest reason that the order already counts on wagons armed in the Bohemian manner and on a well-developed ratio of men to wagons, their organisation and command, whereas he finds no trace of wagon equipment in the neighbouring lands before 1426.
Compared with Kurz's edition, Toman's text has modernised spelling (e.g. “und” instead of “vnd”, “ein” instead of “ain”), is divided into numbered articles and departs from Kurz in several places. In art. 3 it reads “unter denselben Landleuten und ihren Holden”, whereas Kurz has “vnder denselben Lanndlewten von Iren Holden”, i.e. it concerns landholders who cannot raise every tenth man from their subjects. In art. 14 Toman omitted that the official pays the fine “demselben vnsern gnedigen Herren”, i.e. to the duke. Instead of Toman's “ubernarund (sic)” in art. 13, Kurz has “vberuarund”, i.e. they transgressed. Toman's readings “fein Kundschaft” in art. 15 and “Wipen” in art. 22 are misprints; Kurz has “sein kuntschaft” and “wissen”. In these places the translation follows Kurz.
Translation notes: I translate “Landschaft” as “estates”, “Landleute” as “landholders”, i.e. members of the estates holding land in the country, both ecclesiastical and secular, and “Holden” and “Hindersessen” as “subjects” and “cottagers”.
According to Kurz's gloss, the “Gäst” in art. 16 are foreigners owning estates in Austria.
I have not been able to verify the meaning of “Schesslir” in art. 4; from the context it is a kind of helmet. Also uncertain are “Schiessjoppen” (perhaps a padded shooter's jacket), “Mässl” in art. 6 (perhaps a powder measure) and “gediegens Fleisch” in art. 8. These places are marked with a question mark in the translation.
I translate the phrase “ein Abschlag thun” and the word “ausgesten” (to which Kurz already added “sic”) in arts. 11 and 12 according to the sense.
In art. 19 Toman has “an etlich Ursach”, Kurz “an ydlich vrsach”. The preposition “an” here means “without”, so I translate “without due cause”.
Hernach ist vormerkt ein Ordnung, der unser gnädiger Herr Herzog Albrecht, Herzog zu Österreich und Markgraf zu Merhern x, und die Landschaft seines Lands wider die Ketzer von Pöheim sind überein worden.
Here is recorded an ordinance on which our gracious lord Duke Albrecht, Duke of Austria and Margrave of Moravia etc., and the estates of his land have agreed against the heretics of Bohemia.
The order was an enclosure to a letter sent by the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order from Marienburg (Malbork) to the city council of Danzig (Gdańsk) on 19 April 1433. In it he requested that Danzig equip thirty good iron-clad war wagons according to the enclosed description. Compared with Toman's edition, one reading differs in the original. Toman gives that the wagon should be wider “dann andere weyen”, i.e. than the other wagons. However, both the Danzig original and the surviving draft in Königsberg read “denne unser wagen”, i.e. wider than our wagons.
Translation notes: After consideration, I translated the term “fuhrweyn” as “war wagon”. Based on the description, it refers to a sturdy wagon, somewhat wider than the others.
The term “lotbuchse” has so far only been found in connection with the Teutonic Order. It should refer to a firearm shooting lead bullets without further specification. Both lotbuschen, which are handheld weapons, and lotbuchsen, which are mounted on carriages, are mixed together. Here I chose the equivalent light cannon, i.e. a small carriage-mounted cannon, but it could also be a hook gun.
The term “warpen” is probably an abbreviation of “warpenweyn”, which in Prussian German is a wagon for transporting military material.
Translated by PhDr. Zdeňka Kopková, corrections by Daniel Burger.
Translated by PhDr. Zdeňka Kopková, corrections by Daniel Burger.
Although this text is traditionally referred to as the Frankfurt wagon order, it is not an ordinance of the city of Frankfurt. It is an enclosure to a circular letter of Louis IV, Count Palatine of the Rhine, whom the Roman King Frederick III had appointed supreme imperial captain against the Armagnacs. He issued the circular in Heidelberg on 13 October 1444 and sent the same enclosure to other imperial cities as well, including Cologne, St. Gallen and Nördlingen. Frankfurt was only one of the recipients.
Ouch haben wir fürgenommen und lüte bestallt mit der wagenburge dem volk zu widerstehn, und sollen tusent wagen, iglicher mit zwein starken knechten, die wohl gefahren können, und vier starken wagen- hengsten, wohl gemähnet und gestallt, mit leitern, zäunen, starken lüssen [leisten], halb mit leinem tuch gedeckt, und unden zwischen den zwein achsen an der langwide ein stark brett an ketten hangen, gestalt, dass man das anhenken und abthun möge, wann man will; und sollen je zween wagen ein ketten haben, die acht ellen lang sei, mit einem ring und einem hacken, dass man die an und abthün möge, wann man will; und sollen zu iglichen wagen zwo handbüchsen, und zu iglicher handbüchsen zum minsten sechzig bleiklötz, und zu zwein wagen ein kammerbüchs und darzu zum minsten dreissig stein, als gross als ein haupt ist, und zu iglichem wagen zween flegel, die beslagen und mit ketten angehenkt sind, zwoo gleen [gleven] und hacken daran, drei setztartschen von borten mit stecken hinden daran, ein schufel, ein haue und ein bickel gehören, und darumb so wollent uwer wagen also zustellen, und auch stein, pulver, blei und pfeil, so ihr meiste mögent mit uch bringen.
Dat. ut supra.
And we have arranged and enlisted men with the wagon fort to resist the enemy, and there shall be a thousand wagons, each with two strong servants who can drive well, and four strong draught stallions, well maned and formed, with ladders, fencing, reinforced braces, half covered with linen cloth, and below between the two axles on the longitudinal side a strong board shall hang on chains, arranged so that it can be attached and removed whenever one wishes; and every two wagons shall have one chain, eight ells long, with a ring and a hook, so that it can be attached and removed whenever one wishes; and to each wagon two handguns, and to each handgun at least sixty lead bullets, and to every two wagons one chamber gun and at least thirty stones the size of a head, and to each wagon two flails that are iron-clad and attached with chains, two glaives with hooks on them, three set pavises with boards and stakes at the back, one shovel, one mattock, and one pick; so therefore equip your wagons thus, and also bring stones, powder, lead, and bolts as much as you can carry with you.
Translated by PhDr. Zdeňka Kopková.
It was printed in Chroniken der deutschen Städte, Nürnberg, II, on pages 252 to 254. It mentions the expedition to Spalt, which ended in June 1450.
Translated by PhDr. Zdeňka Kopková
The instruction dates from the time when the imperial army marched to relieve Neuss, besieged by Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and Margrave Albrecht Achilles was among its leading commanders. The text on this page follows Toman, who took it from Joseph Würdinger. Würdinger dated the instruction to 15 May 1475, citing the Nuremberg archive, and does not give it in its original wording but in a retelling in 19th-century German. The original wording of the same order was published by Felix Priebatsch among the documents relating to the council of war of 25 April 1475, from a copy in the Strasbourg city archive. In it, Margrave Albrecht is referred to in the third person, Lutz Schott and Köckeritz are named as wagon masters, and the order also reckons with gunfire from the town of Zons on the Rhine.
Translated by PhDr. Zdeňka Kopková
The text comes from the so-called Praeparatoria, the instructions of Elector Albrecht Achilles of Brandenburg for assembling and deploying an army intended for the war against Duke John of Sagan in 1477. They are preserved in the Prussian Privy State Archives in Berlin and were published in full by the Great General Staff in 1884; Toman printed only a selection. The section Ordenung eines heerzoges is written in a different hand. The editors assume that these are instructions drawn up on the Elector's order, approved by him and then added to the rest of the text.
Translation notes: In German, the term wagenberg is used for the wagon fort, which corresponds more closely to the translation wagon castle. When the text speaks of the wagon fort, it refers to all the wagons collectively, regardless of whether the wagon fort, as understood in the Czech context, has been established, or whether the wagons are in motion, as discussed in the following text.
Item es zeihet (ziehet) E. G. mit einer grossen wagenborg, und sunderlich wenn die wagenborg im zoge ist, so bestelle E. G. die warte gar wohl und vorn, hinder und vordern wagenborg, und blibt mit allem volk in der mitte neben der wagenborg, ab sie hindern oder vorn angegriffen worden, dass man kan zu holfe kommen. Ein wagenborg kann nicht an allen orten ubern wasser, graben, thale, berge und holz in ihren IV zeilen, wie sich das geboret, gehen; und also sic IIzeilicht gehet, mussen sie sich gar lang erstrecken, daromb kann man zu zeiten hinden oder vorn ein rad abgehen, sunderlich als ich gehort, E. F. G. habe uber tausend heerwagen, ane (ohne) futterwagen, nechstmals im felde gehabt.
Your Grace marches with a large wagon fort, and especially when the wagon fort is on the march, Your Grace shall arrange the watch very well at the front, rear, and before the wagon fort, and remain with all the men in the middle beside the wagon fort, so that if they are attacked from behind or in front, one can come to their aid. A wagon fort cannot travel in its IV rows as is proper at all places across water, ditches, valleys, hills, and woods; and when it goes in two rows, they must stretch very far, therefore one wheel can sometimes come off at the back or front, especially as I have heard, Your Princely Grace had over a thousand war wagons in the field last time, not counting the supply wagons.
The order has survived in a codex of the Electoral Brandenburg feudal archive containing records of the war that Elector Albrecht Achilles of Brandenburg waged against Pomerania in 1478–1479. It was first printed by Raumer in 1830 in the Allgemeines Archiv für die Geschichtskunde des Preußischen Staates. In that edition the order is undated and only follows a levy list from Easter 1479. The year 1478 was assigned to it by Max Jähns.
Translated by PhDr. Zdeňka Kopková.
This wagon order has survived in a codex commissioned by the Franconian nobleman Philip of Seldeneck. The manuscript is now kept in the Badische Landesbibliothek in Karlsruhe (formerly the Grand Ducal Library) under the shelfmark Cod. Durlach 18 and is fully digitised. It contains a German translation of Vegetius followed, on folios 78r–87r, by the order Ordnung und geschick der wagenburg in 76 paragraphs. On folio 87r it is followed by a supplement of 7 paragraphs, Wie du mit wenig wägen ein wagenburg machen sollt, intended for smaller circumstances. Various treatises on army formation and military matters in general, intended for Seldeneck's sons, were written on further folios. Notes on folios 111b and 115b show that the writer made them as an old man who recalled the wars in Bohemia, Poland and Prussia as events of his youth. Toman believed that these additions and the supplement to the wagon order were written in Seldeneck's own hand. A more recent description of the manuscript, however, attributes the order and the supplement to a single scribe and, following Kurt Neubauer, the later additions to Seldeneck's son Hans. The dating also differs: Max Jähns placed the additions no later than 1480, Neubauer dates the manuscript to 1480–1493, and the watermark of the paper points to the last quarter of the 15th century. Jähns also doubted that Seldeneck himself composed the wagon order and considered it rather an inherited text. This order is particularly significant because it largely explains the manner of manoeuvring with wagons and the wagon formation both on the march and in battle. Unfortunately, its explanations are sometimes incomprehensible.
Translated by PhDr. Zdeňka Kopková.
Zu merken notdurft, ordnung und geschick der wagenburg in ein feld zu den feinden und von den feinden.
Zum ersten.
To note the necessities, order, and skill of the wagon fort in the field towards the enemy and away from the enemy.
Firstly.
The text is written in manuscript Cgm 356 of the Bavarian State Library in Munich, an anonymous book on fireworks and gunnery. The whole manuscript was written by a single hand in Bavarian dialect with some East Swabian features; its provenance is unknown and the paper watermarks point to the last decade of the 15th century. The catalogue lists the text as a wagon fort ordinance (Wagenburgordnung). In fact it is based on chapters 22–25 and 27 of the first book of Vegetius' Epitoma rei militaris in the German translation by Ludwig Hohenwang, as known from the Augsburg print of about 1475. In these chapters Hohenwang renders the Roman military camp as a wagon fort (wagenburg), which is why the text speaks of the praetoria and decumana gates, of cohorts and centuries. The scribe of the manuscript shortened and altered Hohenwang's text in places and added to the end of the chapter on fortifying the wagon fort a passage that is not in the print. Besides hoes and shovels he calls for axes, flails, scythes and sickles, and for every wagon in the wagon fort a 24-foot spear with a hook, a Bohemian flail with iron spikes and two hook-gun shooters. Würdinger paraphrased the content of these pages in modern German as an excerpt from a late 15th-century book on fireworks.
Notes on the transcription and translation: abbreviations are expanded, the spelling of the manuscript is kept and u with a superscript sign is transcribed as ü. Doubtful readings were checked against Hohenwang's print.
Following Hohenwang, “ritter” here corresponds to Latin miles and is translated as “soldiers”. With the ditch, “hoch” means depth; “spitz” is the battle line, “auffbietter” the herald (Hohenwang has büttel), “getüll stecken” palisade stakes and “beichel” axes.
The numeral read as x has the same form in five places in the chapter on fortification. For the proper ditch Hohenwang's print gives a width of 12 and a depth of 9 feet, and after the earth is heaped up a depth of 13 and a width of 12 feet. According to him the first ditch is 9 feet wide and 7 deep, whereas the manuscript has 7 or 8 and 6 feet. Würdinger read 10 feet in the manuscript. For the ten thousand paces the manuscript agrees with the print.
The phrase “an die wege” in the chapter on fortification has no counterpart in the print and its meaning is uncertain.
Aber die wagenpurg voran, so die feind nahet sein, süllen an einer sichern stat gemacht werden, besunder do holtz genüg und futer genüg ist und auch wassers genüg ist. Und ob lenger do zu bleyben sey, so sol erwelt werden gesuntheit der stat. Es ist zu hütten, das kein nahender perg sey bey der wagenpurg, also daz die feind den perg nit ein nemen und in belegern. Auch daz das feld mit guss wasser nit gewon sey zu überwessern, von welhem das heer ungemach leyden müst. Auch nach der zal reitter und knecht und auch des zeugs, so zu inne gehört sein, die wagenpurg zu bewaren, nit daz die mengin des folcks bezwungen werd in ein engin oder die wenig in ein weittin mer dan not ist sich auss zu brayten etc.
Unter weile gefiert wagenpurg, zu zeitten dreyeket und zu zeitten halb sinwel, dar nach die statt oder notturfft haischet, sein die wagenpurg zu machen. Aber daz tor, daz man heist pretoriam, sol eintweders gegen der sunne auffgang stan oder gegen der stat, do man dan die feind sicht. Ist aber sach, das man im zug ist, so sol es an den tail sehen, da hin dan der zeug ziehen wil, auff welhem sy dan die erste cohortes, daz ist der erst hauff, gezelt, paner und zaichen geordnet. Aber die port, die man heist decumanam, die ist nach der port, die dan pretoria heist, und ist die port, durch welche die straff wirdige ritter zu der pen gefürt werden etc.
Der wagenpurg bewarung ist mangerlay, aber besunder dreyerlei. Wan ist das grosse nott nit bezwingt, so sol man die wagenpurg mit wasen umb machen oder mit ertreich, und auss dem wirt gemacht gleich als ein maur dreyer schüch hoch, also das vornen an ein grab wirt und das ertreich hin ein an die wege geworffen von dem, so die wasen hin dan genomen sind. Wirt dar nach ein grab siben oder acht schüch brayt und wirt sechs schüch hoch. Aber da man die feind am meisten besorgt, so sol der recht grab der wagenpurg bewart werden, also das er x schüch brayt sey und x schüch hoch nach der linien, als man dan spricht, x schüch. Auch auff die graben der wagenpurg sol man gut zeün machen, und das ertreich, das dan hin und her auss graben wirt, sol man zu samen tragen. Das selb ertreich bringt in die höch des grabes fier schüch. Also wirt der grab x schüch hoch und x schüch brayt, zu welchem man haben müss getüll stecken von starcken holtz, die dan die trabanten oder fuss knecht gewon sein zu tragen, dar zu hawen und schauffel und auch gute beichel, gut flegel, sensen und sichel genüg. Item auff yettlichem wagen, der dan an der wagenpurg stet, ein langen spiess, der xxiiij schüch lang sey und forne ein scharpffs eysen, daz gut stechen sey, und ein hacken an dem eysen, und ein Behemische dryschel mit eysnen zencken, und auch auff yettlichem wagen zwen haken büchsen schützen mit irem zeug, wan es mag gesein etc.
Wan sölichs gering ist, wa nit feind sein, die wagenpurg zu bewaren. So aber der feind zu statt, so sol der ganz gereisig zeug und der halb tayl der fuss knecht ab zu treiben den einbruch an eine spitz geordnet werden, und die andern nach in graben machen und die wagenpurg bewaren. Und durch den auffbietter gezaigt werden, welche erste centuria, welche andre, welche dritte ein yettlichs werck vol bracht hab. Dar nach wirt von den centuriones geheissen daz beschawet und gemessen, und die sölichs mit sawmnuss getan haben, werdent gestrafft. Dar umb zu solicher gewonheit ist zu ordnen der new ritter, wan sölichs not aischet, das die wagenpurg on irrung und behend mügen bewart und versehen werden etc.
Darumb ist alte gewonheit beliben, und durch die auffsetzung Augusti und auch Adriani wirt gepoten, das zu dreyen maln in dem monet die reitter und auch die fuss knecht spacieren gefürt würden, wan mit dem wort wirt sölichs übung bedeut. Also die fuss knecht wurden geheissen zu gen und wider keren in die wagenpurg geharnascht und gerüst mit allerlay wer x tausent schritt, also das sy ein tail des wegs mit lauffen vol prachten. Auch die reitter getaylt in turmas und geharnascht vol brachten so vil wegs, also daz sy nach reyttlicher ordnung zu zeitten nach volgten und zu zeitten wichen und mit wider lauff gleich mit einer ungestiem wider umb kerten. Aber nit alain in dem feld, sunder auch in tellern und hohen stetten auff und ab zu steigen wart yettweder spitz bezwungen, dar um daz kein sach beschehen möcht, das dann streng vest ritter mit steter übung vor nit hettend erlernet etc.
The wagon fort, above all when the enemy is approaching, is to be made in a safe place, especially where there is enough wood, enough fodder and also enough water. And if one is to stay there longer, a healthy place is to be chosen. Care must be taken that there is no hill close to the wagon fort, so that the enemy does not seize the hill and besiege it. Also that the field is not liable to be flooded by torrents, from which the army would have to suffer hardship. The wagon fort is also to be fortified according to the number of horsemen and foot and of the equipment belonging to them, so that the multitude of people is not crammed into a narrow space, nor a small number spread out over a wide space more than is necessary, etc.
Wagon forts are made sometimes square, sometimes triangular and sometimes semicircular, as the place or necessity requires. The gate called praetoria should face either the sunrise or the place from which the enemy can be seen. But if the army is on the march, it should face the side towards which the army intends to move, and behind it the first cohorts, that is the first body, the tents, banners and standards are placed. The gate called decumana lies behind the gate called praetoria, and it is the gate through which soldiers deserving punishment are led out to be punished, etc.
The fortification of the wagon fort is of many kinds, but especially of three. When no great necessity presses, the wagon fort is to be surrounded with sods or with earth, and of this something like a wall three feet high is made, so that a ditch is formed in front, and the earth is thrown inwards (?) from the place where the sods were taken. Then a ditch is made seven or eight feet wide and six feet deep. But where the enemy is most feared, the wagon fort is to be secured with a proper ditch, so that it is x feet wide and x feet deep below the line, as they say, x feet. Good fences are also to be made on the ditches of the wagon fort, and the earth dug out of the ditch this way and that is to be heaped together; this earth adds four feet to the height of the ditch. Thus the ditch becomes x feet deep and x feet wide. For this one must have palisade stakes of strong wood, which the trabants or foot soldiers are accustomed to carry, and also hoes and shovels and good axes, good flails, scythes and sickles in sufficient number. Item on every wagon standing in the wagon fort a long spear, which is to be 24 feet long with a sharp iron in front, good for thrusting, and a hook on the iron, and a Bohemian flail with iron spikes, and also on every wagon two hook-gun shooters with their equipment, if it can be, etc.
It is easy to fortify the wagon fort where there are no enemies. But if the enemy is at hand, all the cavalry and half of the foot soldiers are to be drawn up in line of battle to repel the attack, and the others behind them are to dig ditches and fortify the wagon fort. And the herald is to announce which century completed its work first, which second and which third. After that the centurions have it inspected and measured, and those who have done it negligently are punished. Therefore the new soldiers are to be trained to such a practice, so that when necessity demands, the wagon fort can be fortified and secured without confusion and quickly, etc.
Therefore the old custom has remained, and by the ordinances of Augustus and Hadrian it is commanded that three times a month the horsemen and the foot soldiers are led out for a walk, for by this word such exercise is meant. The foot soldiers were ordered to march ten thousand paces and return to the wagon fort, armoured and equipped with all kinds of weapons, so that they covered part of the way running. The horsemen too, divided into turmae and armoured, covered the same distance, so that according to cavalry order they sometimes pursued, sometimes gave way and then turned back again in a fierce counter-charge. And not only in the field but also in valleys and high places each line was made to climb up and down, so that nothing could happen that brave and steadfast soldiers had not learned before by constant exercise, etc.
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