The Feudal System

The feudal system (manská soustava) was a medieval system of territorial and organisational units tied to castles. Individual territories were hereditably granted by the owner to persons (vassals, Czech manové), who in return were bound to provide him with services of a military and economic nature. Along with the lands, the vassals also acquired certain legal, judicial and economic privileges.

According to the nature of the services required in return, a distinction was made between noble fiefs (manství ušlechtilá, where vassals had to provide military services) and labour fiefs (manství robotná, where vassals had to help with the operation of the castle or the maintenance of the estate).

The feudal system was first used in the Czech lands probably on the estates of Bruno of Schauenburg and is associated with the arrival of German law. However, historical research has not yet been able to satisfactorily clarify the origins of the feudal system in Bohemia and Moravia.

Due to the scarcity of written sources, our knowledge of the feudal system is fragmented. Among the best-known are the feudal systems of Karlštejn Castle, Křivoklát Castle and some castles in eastern Bohemia (Náchod, Trutnov). Even smaller noble castles could have feudal systems. For example, Nový Žeberk Castle had fiefs in Kundratice, Kyjice, Újezd, Boleboř and Bernov.

Krivoklat

The origins of the Krivoklat feudal system can be reliably traced to the reign of John of Luxembourg (specifically after 1337), from which the earliest surviving charters date, setting out the conditions of the feudal relationship and the extent of the property to which the feudal obligation was attached. The greatest number of these charters dates from the time of Wenceslas IV.

Initially, fiefs were granted only for the lifetime of the holder; later they became hereditary, exclusively through the male line. A widow could hold a fief only with explicit royal permission, provided some man swore an oath to assume the service obligations on her behalf. A vassal was not allowed to sell, encumber, or assign as a dowry his fief estate without the king's consent — any such transaction was void.

Upon the vassal's death, the fief was inherited by sons and grandsons, who were required to pay a fee called laudemium, report to the burgrave within a year (or to the captain, if no burgrave was available), and swear the vassal's oath. If this deadline was missed, the fief reverted to the king as lapsed. This happened to Majirkov ze Sence in 1389 and to Valent z Kounova in 1567, who had purchased a fief estate in Kounov from the Knezeves magistrate Havel for 700 threescore groats in 1558, but failed to register it in the feudal books or come to swear the oath beneath the tower at Krivoklat, and therefore the estate was forfeited to Archduke Ferdinand in 1567.

Vassals received their fief by swearing an oath at the iron gates beneath the square gatehouse tower. They were then led into the knights' hall, where their duties were announced and a chest for storing armour and other equipment was handed over. On this occasion, the vassals presented the captain with a hat adorned with a plume (mit Federpusch).

Fief records were to be kept in the feudal registers, which were established at Krivoklat in 1454, but vassals often additionally secured their entries in the court registers. In 1560, Archduke Ferdinand ordered Sternberk by open letter to summon all vassals to appear at the castle with their charters. After inspecting all the documents, the vassals were instructed to adhere solely to the feudal books and not to seek any jurisdiction other than that of the Krivoklat captain. From that time, vassals were no longer permitted to make entries in the court registers; nevertheless, we have evidence that they continued to neglect the feudal books and recorded only in the court registers.

Why it was insisted that feudal books be kept at every castle is explained by a court record from 1479: „Zjistilo se, ze mnoho dedin manskych bylo jiz od koruny ceske odtrzeno, jeden druhemu dediny prodavaje, druhemu listy kralovske vydava bez povoleni kralova; kdyz pak listove ztrati se, tu manske dediny vyjdou z pameti a za svobodne se vydavaji. Tak sluzba kralova hyne a urad dvorsky chudne.“

A fief could be terminated either by felony, i.e. breach of fealty — if a vassal failed to swear the oath in time, insulted the sovereign's person, neglected his duties or committed some other crime — or by commutation of service (e.g. Hedcany), whether free of charge, in reward for faithful service, or for payment. The king could not commute a fief on his own without the permission of the lords, for the reason that a fief was not purely a chamber estate (belonging to the king) but a territorial estate (belonging to the state).

The destruction of an estate granted as a fief did not extinguish the service obligation, but merely reduced it. When the villages of Pistny, Okrouhlik, Simin, and Olesek were completely burned down during the Hussite Wars, the obligations attached to them passed to the holders of the lands remaining from the deserted villages.

Feudal disputes were handled by a special feudal court, which judged independently, though huntsmen and foresters had their own separate jury. This court was composed of 12 vassals serving as sworn judges or aldermen. The plaintiff and the defendant each chose 6 vassals as judges.Thus Jan z Tyter testified in 1456 before the court: „Kdyz nas 12 manow a sluzebnikow sedlo na sud k rozkazani pana Alse Holickeho (ze Sternberka), sudili sme o dedictvi v Sadlne a to prisudili sme Drahonovi.“

After the death of Ales Holicky ze Sternberka (+1455), the feudal court ceased to function, and so the (noble) vassals turned to the court of the land, while the foresters remained under the castle court: When in 1454 Dorota z Chynavy summoned the foresters Vaclav Panoska and Jan Rybsa before the court, claiming they unlawfully held her forester's estate, the burgrave Jan z Kozojed wrote to the court that „ti hajni k soudu dvorskemu neprinaleži a maji od starodavna svuj zvlastni soud na Besedici.“

One of the last sessions of the feudal court in the 15th century took place when the brothers Jindrich and Jan Bornove ze Slabec summoned Jan Drahon in 1456 over an estate in Sadlno. At that time, the governor of the land Jiri z Podebrad ordered each party to gather 6 servants (vassals) for its cause.

In 1460, it was ordered that all common royal servants (vassals) and village magistrates of royal villages were to be tried in all matters of debts, estates, damages, and disputes before the court judge, while watchmen, tower guards, and gatekeepers of royal castles were to be tried for minor matters before the burgrave of their castle.
However, when in 1479 Jan Drahon ze Sadlna summoned Sulek ze Slovic before the court over a manor in Panosi Ujezd, the plaintiff was informed that he could not be tried against the orders of his burgrave.
Likewise, Katerina Vaclavkova z Panosiho Ujezda was instructed by the court in 1487 to seek the accused Jan Babtista at the castle court.

In 1529, three disputes arose simultaneously: the miller Daniel in the pool below Rakovnik replied to the town council that he had nothing to do with them, but according to a charter of King Vladislav he was answerable only to the castle captain. Vaclav Strojeticky na Chrici had a dispute with the vassals of Hlohovice over meadows, and Jindrich Krakovsky clashed with the captain over forests.

Only then did the captain Albrecht z Vresovic write to the court that it was necessary to re-establish the feudal court so that vassals could obtain justice without having to go to the court every time. No one knew by whom or in what manner the court should be constituted, as no records had been preserved and no one any longer remembered. The report also notes that „osoby rytirske sluzeb manskych nekonaji, sedmi i osmi nebozatky statek osadili a ta sluzby zastavati musi.“

The chief justice Vaclav Bezdruzicky investigated this submission and in 1531 wrote to the councils of the Bohemian Chamber that „poradek pri soude manskem na Krivoklatě stejny jest jako na Karlstejne, Hluboke, a Zvikove. Totiz puvod (zalobce) pohani sesti sluzebníky (many) strany sve spravedlnosti k osazeni soudu a pohnany tez sesti k roku od uredniku desk dvorskych polozenemu; a tech 12 soudcu zahajice soud, strany slyseli a nalez ucinili aneb strany na mocne smluvce (ubrmany) podali. Take pani soudu dvorskeho (aby) many pred soud na Krivoklat podavali a teprve kdyz tam porovnani nebyli, tehdy od purkreabi k urednikum dvorskym obehnani byli. Ale hajni krivoklatsti od starodavna na Besedici zvlastni svuj soud mivali.“

The following inventory of service obligations was based on the description of the vassals of Hradek Krivoklat from 1552, supplemented from many other sources.

Service Fiefs

1. Vsetaty, 5 manors, and the village of Loucko attached to them. The holder was required, on the burgrave's order, to ride to the castle on horseback and remain there as long as necessity demanded. He was to receive nothing other than food and drink.
2. Hlivojedy and Jezevce, whole villages (both later merged with Petrovice). The holder of both estates was to dispatch two armoured horsemen to the castle, in the same manner as described for Vsetaty.
3. Hracholusky, a village with a stronghold and a demesne manor. The holder was to arrive at the castle in full armour and remain there as long as the lords commanded. He was given food and drink.
4. Slovice, a village with a stronghold and a demesne manor; Sadlno, a demesne manor; in 1431 the village of Smrk was added to them. The vassal, together with one companion, was to arrive at the castle in full iron armour.
5. Vlci Hora, a stronghold and demesne manor; was to equip one armoured man for the castle (part of the wasteland was later assigned to Lubna, another part to Hvozd).
6. Pricina, a demesne manor called Detrichovsky with double ploughland and peasant farms. The lord was to cart aftermath hay to the storehouse at the castle. There were also four settled tenants who by right guarded prisoners at the castle.
7. Trtice, a stronghold, demesne manor, and village; the holder was to arrive at the castle in armour and do whatever the lords commanded.
8. Hnidousy, two demesne manors. The lord was to serve at the castle in iron armour and, in addition, keep a bloodhound ready for the king.
9. Hedcany, a demesne manor, peasant farms, forests, and a stream. The holder was to come to the castle with a crossbow; there, bolts were to be made for him at royal expense.
10. Kozlany, a demesne manor with 1 lan and a stream. The vassal was to serve at the castle with a crossbow; bolts were to be made for him at royal expense.
11. Plavec, a stronghold with a demesne manor, and Siskov (Cizkov), a village. The holder, together with one companion, was to arrive at the castle in armour with crossbows and remain there as long as the lords commanded. He was given only food and drink.
12. Breznice, a demesne manor; from 1474 also peasant farms. The fief was commuted in 1527 (see Hedcany).
13. Kolesov Veliky, 11 peasant farms with 10 lan of farmland. The lord was to present himself at the castle in full iron armour. Commuted in 1529 (see Hedcany).
14. Skalka, a house near Krivoklat Castle with meadows below it, 8 lan in the village of Chrastany, and the whole village of Kalubice. The vassal, together with two companions, was to come to the castle; apart from food and drink, nothing else was provided. By 1411 these were already divided.
15. Chrastany, 8 lan of farmland. The lord was to arrive at the castle in iron armour and remain there as long as the lords commanded.
16. Prilepy, 5 peasant farms. The holder was to provide 6 new crossbows each year and permanently send 4 crossbowmen to the castle. They were to receive nothing other than clothing and footwear.
17. Zehrovice, a manor with one lan. The holder was to send an armoured man to the castle and remain there as long as the lords commanded.
18. Lisna. The lord was to serve at the castle in armour. Re-granted in 1552 together with the wastelands of Okrouhlik and Rebrik to Jirik Mniskovsky z Entenslanka, who was to serve at the castle with one horse, as needed, in front and rear armour with a gorget, in a chainmail skirt and arm guard, with a pikelhube, a handgun, and a boar spear, as befits a mounted crossbowman.
19. Krakov, a demesne manor, with the villages of Rousinov, Sipy, and Vsesulov attached. The lord was to come to the castle with 4 lancers. In 1363 this obligation was transferred to Krakovec Castle, but it was commuted in 1497.
20. Chric, a stronghold with a demesne manor and peasant farms. The vassal was to come to the castle in iron armour and do whatever the lords commanded.
21. Kounov and Lhota. King Wenceslas in 1402 gave Jaroslav z Nevida 8 lan less a quarter in Kounov and 12 deserted lan in Lhotka, so that he would serve at the castle with one armoured horse and a crossbow.
22. Ruda and Lhota (Ceska), whole villages. The lord, together with one companion, was to arrive at the castle in iron armour and remain there as long as the lords commanded.
23. Krusovice, a demesne manor with 2 lan of farmland. The holder, on command, was to come to the castle with a crossbow, and there bolts were to be made for him.
24. Zilina, a demesne manor whose holder was to come to the castle with a crossbow and do whatever the lords commanded.
25. Okrouhlik, otherwise known as Bornov (formerly a stronghold near Unhost). The lord was to set fires before the army. This unusual service obligation requires explanation. Already the chronicler Dalimil records that the Bohemian sovereigns, when invited to the imperial court in Germany, had fire set before them. King Wenceslas IV, invited to Nuremberg in 1370, had great fires lit in two places upon his arrival, following the custom of his ancestors, to announce his coming, for since ancient times kings have had the right to arrive in flames and fire. The German princes and burghers, alerted by the fire to the king's approach, rode out to meet him. The second fire-setter was in Mestecko.
26. Ujezd Panosi, three demesne manors. Two were held in 1508 by Boren ze Slabec, with the obligation that, should war break out, he was to come to the castle upon the captain's summons and stay for 4 weeks; after that time, should he still be needed, he was to remain and receive soldier's pay.
    One of these manors was held in 1552 by Jan Kfelir ze Zaksova, who was obliged to come with a crossbow and do whatever the lords commanded.
    The second manor (Kubovsky) was held by Jirik Kfelir with the same obligation. The third manor (Jiraskovsky), with 1 1/2 lan, was held by Mikulas ze Vlenec with the same obligation.
27. Senec, a village with a stronghold and a demesne manor. In 1389, the obligation of Otik Majirkov was renewed: on the burgrave's command, he was to present himself at the castle with a crossbow. However, Vaclav Chotek na Senci declared in 1581 that his obligation was to present himself at the castle in a red coat and yellow cap on a white horse, and to aim an unstrung crossbow loaded with a pommel bolt at the king as he rode into the castle.
28. Hradkov (now Hradecko). King Louis in 1525 granted the deserted village of Hradkov as a fief to Martin z Kozlova: whenever the king came to Krivoklat and so required, the holder was to present himself at the castle with 2 horses and serve there until the king departed. Food, fodder, and other necessities were to be provided at royal expense.

Labour Fiefs

1. Budy, below the castle. In 1457, a feudal house and some meadows called Lezice, together with 5 lan and a smallholder; but by 1552 a village, whose settlers lowered wines and other precious drinks into the castle cellars. They were given food at the castle. There was also one man who was to go to Castonice for messengers.
2. Mestecko, by the castle. These men carted wood to the brewery year after year, when so ordered. There was also one who was to carry to the castle whatever was purchased in the town of Rakovnik. Another was to bring on his back 4 threescore eggs from Rakovnik every Saturday; for the walk he received 4 eggs. There was a wasteland where Jan Rudlik once lived. Its holder was obliged, when the queen lay in her lying-in with the young king, to drive nightingales to sing beneath her windows. Another had the duty, should someone commit murder or some misdeed on the estate, to take possession of the culprit's property and ensure that everything was preserved. Jakub Carda had the obligation to ride with the king and set fires wherever the king commanded. He was to be given a white horse and red garments (see Okrouhlik). Others were to drive to the castle whatever the kitchen master purchased for meat. All were obliged — the fire-setter among them — to drive cattle from one manor to another, to go on hunts, to catch harmful game, and to transport nets.
3. Roztoky. There were two watchmen and one well-settled man who was to cart wood for malt-kilning to the malt house. There were also two brewers who were to brew beer at the castle when the lords so ordered. Additionally, there were two foresters or officials who guarded the forests — 1/3 of a mile long and 2 miles wide — and helped the forest clerk to collect revenues. Another was to drive to the castle whatever the cook purchased for meat. One fowler delivered a threescore of titmice every Sunday, from the Sunday after St Peter's Day until St Wenceslas' Day, and 2 squirrels until Shrovetide. At Easter he delivered a capercaillie; he was also to catch goshawks and gather sparrowhawks when the lords commanded. There was also a holding set aside for the castle cook. Above the village, in Rybari, there were two ferrymen who were to transport messengers, dogs, and nets to the castle free of charge. They were also obliged to supply the castle with fish.
4. The town of Zbecno. Some were to sweep the castle and clean the towers. Others were to heat the great hall at the castle from St Gall's Day to St George's Day. One was to make shovels for cleaning the castle and barrows for carrying manure. Three beaters were to go hunting on the lords' command. There were also 4 fishermen, each of whom delivered fish worth 14 pennies every Friday. One delivered a capercaillie for the burgrave's table at Easter. There were also fowlers who delivered a threescore of titmice and goldfinches every Sunday from St Peter's Day until St Wenceslas' Day, and as many squirrels as there were days in Shrovetide. Separately, there was one game hunter. One supplied the castle kitchen year after year with 2 cleavers and a meat axe. Should any of these break, he had to make a replacement immediately. One man named Havlu was to provide four litters for carrying stone and 11 shovels of the kind used to scrape the castle clean. For these needs, wood was to be carted for him. One was to deliver for the burgrave's table as many squirrels as there were Sundays in Shrovetide.
5. Sykorice. The settlers were to go on hunts and guard the front or middle gates when so ordered by the lords. During the third mating season and the deer rut, they were to repair and grease the wagons alongside those from Bukova, load nets onto the wagons, cart them to the hunting grounds, and dry them. In spring, when the capercaillies displayed, and in autumn, when the stags bellowed, they were to keep watch for one week at a time.
6. Racice. These were to deliver 12 pots and 12 lamps each week and carry them on their backs. One had the right to go hunting with the tower guards for wild boar.
7. Ujezd nad Zbecnem. These were to carry or cart game at any time when the lords commanded. There was one stoker for the great hall at the castle. Another was a beater, who was to go on hunts.
8. Bukova. Here there were beaters and net handlers who were by right to go on hunts, grease wagons, cart and dry cloths and nets, and encircle harmful game in the hunting rounds. There were also three foresters who guarded the forests of Bukova; these forests were 7/4 of a mile long and 2 miles wide.
9. Branov. Four gatekeepers were to guard the front gates continuously, alternating in pairs. Three crossbowmen were to go on hunts or come to the castle with crossbows. There were also two messengers who carried letters to the Plzen region, the Vltava region, and other districts.
10. Nezabudice. In the village there were two bakers who were to bake bread at the castle. One was to be present at the castle with an unstrung crossbow, and the burgrave himself would have strings made for him. King Vladislav in 1500 allowed the holders of the demesne manor and the tavern to pay no other dues than 2 capons on Christmas Eve, or 15 groats for each.
11. Lasovice. There was one forester who guarded the forests of Bukova, and one messenger who carried letters to the Zatec region.
12. Rysin. There was one messenger who carried letters as far as Kadan and throughout the Zatec region.
13. Pustovety. There were three crossbowmen — Jan, Beluch, and Albrecht Boren — who were to be at the castle with their crossbows and do whatever and whenever the lords commanded.
14. Vnice (Mice), a hamlet. In it there was one servant who delivered 12 drinking cups every Sunday for the burgrave's table. Another delivered one water jug or 2 pails every Sunday. One holding was deserted; from it a cooper was to hoop barrels, casks, jugs, and other vessels.
15. Castonice, a well-settled whole village. In it, all were messengers to Prague and beyond Prague, to whatever regions and whenever the lords commanded. There was also one hunter who by right was to chase game. (Later they carted all supplies for the dogs to the hunting lodge at Skalka near the castle.)
16. Luzna. A free magistracy with 2 lan and two dependants, one a butcher, the other a baker. Attached to it were a free mill, a tavern, a garden of 4 strychy, and the meadow Hvozdec (1348). From this, 4 hares were delivered every Christmas (in 1552, two vassals who each delivered 2 hares). The magistrate also held one forester lan, from which he was to serve the officials as a forest overseer. In addition, he held half a lan of farmland, for which he was obliged to provide the fisherman and hunters with bread when the Royal Pond below the village was fished.
    Some settlers were obliged during the rut to drive apart rutting stags. In return, they had the right to fell timber for their needs in a designated forest (a fir wood). This place is still called the Vassals' Fir. The adjacent game preserve bears the name Game Clearing. It was a forest meadow (rather a glade) where hay was cut for feeding game in winter.
17. Hlohovice. In them there were 9 servants who were to be present at the castle with crossbows whenever so ordered, and do whatever the lords commanded. In particular, they guarded capercaillies during the spring display and stags during the autumn rut. There was also a demesne manor, with a mill and a forge attached. King Vladislav in 1497 confirmed the vassals' ancient rights: whenever need arose, they were to send one armed man to the castle. Wherever they rode or walked, they paid neither tolls nor market dues. They were to be tried only at the feudal court at the castle and were never to be separated from that castle, for their forebears had voluntarily submitted to this service. In 1714, all feudal obligations were commuted to the Kvitkov estate with a tavern.
18. Hlohovicky. A well-settled village with 11 servants who were to be present at the castle with crossbows, guard the castle, or perform other tasks, ride or march wherever the lords commanded. No payment was necessary for this, as they were obliged to do it by right. (Commuted from fief status in 1527; see Hedcany).
19. Otrocineves: these vassals were to pay four wagon drivers (i.e. provide four wagons).
20. Ujezd Panosi, a large, well-settled village. In it there were 17 vassals (squires, hence the name of the village), who were to be present at the castle with crossbows when so ordered and do whatever the lords commanded. They were to receive nothing beyond their provisions.
    The captain Oulicka testified in 1566 that the dependants of Ujezd had since ancient times received 48 loaves of bread and 8 small groats weekly, but Lord Sternberk (1560) had abolished this allowance.
    It is easy to calculate that originally there were 16 vassals, each of whom received 3 loaves and half a groat.
    The clerk of the register, having compiled the service obligations in 1552, added: There are a good many more service obligations, but the registers are somewhat damaged and could not be fully deciphered; therefore these were omitted, though human memory of these obligations still endures.
    The inventory then concluded with the addition: There are still 5 villages which have no other service obligation than to perform watch duty at the castle. We know them by name, and they are:
21. Zavidov. A free tavern and one lan of farmland, which had been distributed among ten men under emphyteutic right.
22. Hostokryje. A peasant farm with one lan of farmland (sold to Pricina in 1481).
23. Novosedly. A whole village.
24. Kalubice. A whole village; the holdings are only small plots and cottages (see Skalka). The settlers in 1550 were governed by the emphyteutic books, but whatever was ordered by the lordship, they were obliged to carry out.
25. Pavlikov. A free magistracy with 3 lan and a demesne manor with 1 lan.
    The captain Albrecht z Vresovic proposed to the Bohemian Chamber in 1529 that the service of gatekeepers and watchmen be abolished. It would be better to convert the vassals' obligations to a regular payment, and they would rather pay a decent sum from which permanent and proven loyal men could be maintained. In times of unrest, the captain could not know whether those arriving for watch duty were watchmen or traitors.
    Vresovec's proposal was partly implemented by Sternberk and partly not until the captaincy of Kaplir (1640). The service obligations that the clerk could not decipher from the damaged registers have been found elsewhere:
26. Kunsuv Manor (below Vsetaty). With 1 lan. The holder was obliged to send a suitable person for one week to guard the bird display and watch over game in the forests.
27. Hredle. A magistracy with three lan of farmland; attached to it a chartered tavern, a butcher, and a baker. The service obligation is not known.
28. Knezeves. A magistracy with 1 lan and 9 jitra, a free tavern, a butcher with a meat stall, and a baker. Whenever important need arose, the magistrate was obliged to keep a riding horse.
29. Chlum. The magistrate paid 3 groats for messengers sent abroad.
30. Mlecice. A magistracy with one lan of farmland and 2 smallholders.
31. Svinarov. A magistracy and a demesne manor with 2 lan.
32. Myslice. (1383 a mill, 1543 a manor, 1610 a ferry below Tyrov Castle.) The holder delivered river fish worth 3 groats every Friday, kept a tracking hound with which he searched for game, and informed the net handlers and beaters in Broumy where they were to assemble.
33. Broumy: the net handlers and beaters were to serve during hunts.
34. Hudlice, a whole village. Two were obliged to serve as officials or foresters and to oversee the forests, which were 5/4 of a mile long and a mile wide. Fourteen settled men were to go on hunts.
35. Svojetin. One settled man (Hans Porth) was obliged during hunts to feed the lord's servants and dogs with proper provisions.
36. Certain bushlands below the pond at Nizbor Castle, with a deserted hop garden and 24 strychy of farmland, were a grant of the Bohemian kings (a charter of King Charles from c. 1370).
37. Chynava. They pay nothing; all settlers merely guard the forests.
38. Bezdekov (Dolni). Three settled men served as officials over the forests, which were 2 miles long and wide.
39. Vasirov: five settled men were obliged to serve as forest officials and collect revenues. Under their office the forests were 2 miles long and wide. They were also obliged to oversee the mowers and labourers in the meadow called „Ptyne“, to ensure they worked properly.
40. Rakovnik. The burghers were obliged, beyond living memory, to provide men and horses for royal hunts and to lend bedding for royal courtiers to the castle.
41. Straseci. The settlers had since ancient times gone on hunts and supplied the necessary wagons for transporting nets and cloth. Since times and captains change, a charter was drawn up for this in 1549.
42. Zatec. The burghers had delivered half a barrel of wine from every vineyard to Krivoklat since 1399. In 1611 this was changed to an annual payment of 25 threescore groats.

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